This rate climbs quite drastically in households where the head has attained post-secondary education; women here are more than six times more empowered than those in households where the head has no education. According to the study, only about 7 percent of women in these households are likely to be empowered — a stark contrast with 53 percent of women in the richest households. Other socio-economic factors such as marital status also come into play with single and married women found to be much more empowered than divorcees and widows.
Mutavati added. However, assessments such as The Global Gender Gap Report show that the country is still lagging in progress towards achieving gender parity, scoring lower than some of its peers in the region.
Targeting a more representative sample at the county level and including globally comparable variables and indicators in upcoming demographic and health surveys will be instrumental in strengthening the Index.
Involving all relevant stakeholders and partners throughout the survey process will also go a long way in improving the outcomes. Key recommendations from the index are as follows:. Esim analyzed returns to education for female entrepreneurs in Turkey and discovered that education has a positive and significant effect on the earnings of the self-employed.
Kingdon reported that in Uttar Pradesh, India, schooling has a highly significant effect on earnings; the premium for each extra year of schooling is about 9.
Similarly, Tansel found that being a primary school graduate has no significant effect on earnings for women in Turkey, but the effects of higher levels of schooling are significant and increase with the level of education. The findings reported in these studies have an important policy conclusion: being literate or having only primary schooling is not enough to enhance productivity or obtain higher labor market rewards.
Department of foreign affair and trade assert that Gender equality is about equal opportunities, rights and responsibilities for women and men, girls and boys. It does not mean that women and men are the same. Gender inequality is a result of unequal power distribution between women and men, exacerbated by ongoing discrimination, weaknesses in laws, policies and institutions, and social relations that normalise inequality.
Societies that make better use of the skills, talents and time of all members will more likely prosper. Women are often more likely than men to use income to support development outcomes within their families. Budlender et.
The numbers of women vocationally trained are also lower than for men. At all levels, society generally perpetuates the stereotype images and roles of women as household makers.
Women who are educated or trained sometimes experience discrimination during selection for jobs and interviews. According to Action , continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity in education in taking decisions with respect to the education of their children, some families continue to have preference for educating boys rather than girls.
As noted female-to-male school enrolment, retention and completion favour boys in a majority of countries.
Very few countries have female to male enrolment rates that favour girls over boys and these countries have been making progress to redress the situation. Further, the World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Index which is a composite measure of economic empowerment, education, health, and political participation reveals that the index is strongly correlated with the GDP levels. Klasen found that gender equality in education had a significant and positive impact, He compared East Asia and South Asia, and found that a quarter of the differences in annual growth could be attributed to gender gaps in education.
They conclude that a one percent increase in the gender gap was associated with reduced output of about 0. All the three theories are underpinned on the fact that there is need for recognition that women form an integral part in the community when it comes to economic development.
The approach is an outcome of three major feminist moments or waves relating to feminine conditions. WID approach calls for the integration of women previously viewed as passive beneficiaries of any advancement into the development process. According to Carr , prior to evolution of WID, development process was only viewed in its economic sense. The evolution of WID approach therefore called for greater attention to women in development policy and practice in matters pertaining to economic agenda in any economy.
Further, the approach calls for the need to challenge the existing gender roles assigned to men and women. It can therefore be asserted that the evolution of WID was the beginning of a proactive corrective action that aimed at actively involving women in development agenda for the realization of meaningful growth.
This approach is anchored on the premises that there should be a development approach to women, which recognizes the dangers of integrating women into a patriarchal world. According to Oishi , the keynote here for WAD is that women should be empowered economically, they should be emancipated from poverty as this will allow them to contribute and benefit from developments efforts.
The approach pays attention to the power of women in the society based on their knowledge, work, goals and their responsibilities hence the need for their recognition in the development agenda. WAD focuses specifically on the relation between patriarchy and capitalism. It states that women have always participated and contributed towards economic development, regardless of the public or private sphere. Socialist feminists have identified the social construction of production and reproduction as the basis of women's oppression and have focused attention on the social relations of gender, questioning the validity of roles that have been ascribed to both women and men in different societies Rathgeber, The approach started a transformation in thinking about sustainable and equitable development.
The approach sees women as agents of change rather than as passive recipients of development efforts. One of the strategies suggested by the approach is the self-organization of women at the local, regional and national levels. A very important strategy and instrument of the GAD concept is the so-called 'gender mainstreaming which aims at increasing gender awareness in all areas and all levels of public life. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and social spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated.
The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, The approach urges an institutional change within socio-economic and political structures in order to eliminate the gender inequalities, and to strengthen the position of women. In order to realize this structural change, the GAD concept introduced the instrument of gender mainstreaming.
It inspired new debates in women and development discourse, and had important implications both for theory and practice. T arget P opulation and Sample Size Table 1. Combination of probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling is applied in choosing the sample size. First the population is clustered into the administrative units implying that there are 13 clusters since MTC has 13 locations. Secondly, simple random sampling is applied to select the household to be interviewed.
It should be noted that a Finite Population Correction has been applied to the sample size formula. The study applies 95 percent confidence interval in selecting the sample implying that the E is 5percent.
Table 2. More specifically, the probit model was applied. From the general representation, of the specific probit model for the study is specified as shown in equation 2: 2 Equation 2 deals with the gender empowerment.
It captures the issues of gender parity in the school enrolment between boy and the girl child. In addition the model captures the gender parity issues in school completion rate between boy and the girl child for both the primary and secondary school.
The other variables household size, household head, education level of the household head and household economic activity are the household characteristics. Sources of Data The study utilized the primary data in its analysis. The data was collected using the self-administered structured household questionnaire. The tool was pretested in one of the locations within Machakos Town Constituency to check on the reliability and the validity of the tool prior to the actual data collection task.
Empirical Findings and Discussion The data collection tool focused on the issues of gender parity in the school enrolment between male and the female children. In addition the model captures the gender parity issues in school completion between male and the female children for both the primary and secondary school. Further, data on the women empowerment programmes as well as the perception on the trend of women in leadership positions in the county were collected.
In terms of enrolment in primary schools, households did not have any boy child enrolled in primary while households had only one boy enrolled representing Table 3. Table 4. For instance households which did not enrol either a boy or girl child in secondary school had the highest frequency standing at Table 5. It was also observed that households recorded higher completion rates for girls than boys in primary school in the catchment area while in secondary school the completion rate was higher for boys than that of girls.
This is shown by Tables 7 and 8. Table 7. Table Majority of the respondents representing This is shown in Table From the results in Table 14 , it is observed that enrolling the girl child in both the primary school and secondary school is more likely to improve the quality of life for the household as compared to not enrolling.
On the secondary school completion the results assert that a household with girl child who successfully completes secondary school education is more likely to have better quality of life by 0.
We however note that girl child enrolment in primary school has the largest magnitude than primary school completion, secondary school enrollment and secondary school completion in improving the quality of life among the households.
From a gender perspective this finding is supported by World Bank , and Summers who point out that those educating girls can achieve even greater results. Concluding Remarks and Policy Implications The regression results of the study show that enrolling the girl child in both the primary school and secondary school is more likely to improve the quality of life for the household as compared to not enrolling.
In terms of girl child school completion rate, the results posit that a household with a girl child who successfully completes primary school education is more likely to have an improved quality life by 0. On the secondary school completion rate, the results assert that a household with girl child who successfully completes secondary school education is more likely to have better quality of life by 0. However it is noted that girl child enrolment in primary school has the largest magnitude than primary school completion, secondary school enrollment and secondary school completion in improving the quality of life among the households.
Therefore it is noted that enrolment of girl child in primary school, and the completion of primary education significantly contributes to the poverty reduction in Machakos County at 5 percent significance level as evidenced by their respective p — values which are less that 5 percent level. This means that primary school enrolment and completion rate among girls significantly contributes to gender empowerment which in turn affects poverty reduction among households in Machakos County.
Based on the findings it is evident that the girl child enrolment is one major programme that can significant impact in empowering girls and women in general.
References [1] Action Building Evidence from Multiple Experiments. Toward an integration of theory and research on the status of women. University of Chicago Press. Human capital and the rise and fall of families. Becker Ed. Economic growth in a cross section of countries.
Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2 , Gender and education in Asia and the Pacific. In: Birdsall, N. Sabot, eds. World Bank Regional and Sectoral Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 54 4 , Hicks and L. Vetten, Turner Gender inequality, income, and growth: Are good times good for women? The role of empowering women and achieving gender equality to the sustainable development of Ethiopia, Pacific Science Review B: Humanities and Social Sciences, 2 1 : Why Women Earn Less.
Amsterdam, Elsevier. World Revolution and Family Pat- terns. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries: Updates and extensions. Ibero America Institute for Economic Research, , Growing up global: The changing transitions to adulthood in developing countries.
Gender equality, poverty and economic growth, Policy Research Working Paper Malhotra, and C. Like father, like sons, like mother like daughter parental resources and child height. The Journal of Human Resources, 29 4 , Economic development. Boston: Pearson Addison Wesley. Education for all by Will we make it? Oxford, Oxford University Press.
All rights reserved. Table 1. Target population. Sample Size. Boys enrolled in primary school. Girls enrolled in primary school. Boys enrolled in secondary school. Table 6. Girls enrolled in secondary school. Boys who completed primary school. Table 8. Girls who completed primary school.
Table 9.
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